Bodybuilding & Athletic Performance
Creatine Monohydrate: Dietary Supplement for Performance
Prohibited Status
NOT prohibited
What is creatine?
- Creatine is a compound found mainly in the skeletal muscle with small amounts also found in the brain. Creatine is produced by the liver, kidneys, and pancreas, but you can also get it through your diet from foods such as red meat and fish. Our bodies store creatine as phosphocreatine (primarily in the muscles) where it's used as a source of energy.
- Creatine monohydrate dietary supplements are popular among athletes and Service Members trying to increase strength, gain muscle, and improve physical performance. These supplements are also advertised to enhance cognitive performance and support brain health.
- There are many other forms of creatine available on the market, such as creatine citrate, creatine ethyl ester, and creatine malate. However, creatine monohydrate is the most extensively studied. Some other forms of creatine might be marketed as better absorbed by the body, minimizing water retention, or having a greater benefit, but research to support these claims is limited. For this reason, the information presented below specifically focuses on the current evidence for creatine monohydrate dietary supplements.
Are there any benefits of creatine monohydrate for improved physical performance?
- Short, high-intensity exercise to increase power, speed, and jump performance: Studies involving participants engaged in sports such as soccer players, combat sport athletes, and some racquet sports, have shown benefits from using creatine monohydrate.
- Strength performance for exercise durations less than 3 minutes: Systematic reviews report increased weight lifted during squats, at the leg press, and bench press among recreationally trained or competitive athletes.
- Endurance exercise: Studies show that there does not appear to be any benefit from creatine monohydrate on aerobic performance, and some studies have shown a decline in performance.
- Exercise-induced muscle damage: Creatine may be effective in reducing the immediate muscle damage that happens right after exercise. However, more research is needed to determine the right amount and timing of creatine use for improved recovery.
- Muscle mass: Studies show that creatine supplementation combined with resistance training might promote a small increase in muscle mass of the upper and lower body.
- Lean body mass: Separate from muscle mass, studies show that when combined with resistance training, males may experience an increase in lean body mass.
How much creatine might be effective for improved physical performance?
Taking creatine monohydrate in amounts as little as 3 g per day has been found to be safe and effective at increasing creatine levels in the muscles and achieving the kinds of performance benefits described above. However, the benefits might take some time to show.
- Many scientific studies have used “loading” doses, which start with 20 g of creatine monohydrate per day (broken up into four 5 g doses spaced evenly throughout the day) for 5–7 days. This is followed by a “maintenance” dose of 3–5 g per day for weeks to months. Individuals who use such a loading dose may experience weight gain early on due to water retention.
- While a loading dose might benefit an individual to maximize the potential effects over a short term, the lower dose “maintenance” strategy (about 3–5 g per day) might be more suitable for someone who may take creatine over a longer time. Most recent studies that have explored different dosing routines don’t report differences in the effects of using loading doses versus the maintenance dose routine. This indicates that more is not necessarily better!
- It’s important to note that the mode of exercise (or dietary intake) may influence the “true” benefit that one may experience from creatine supplementation. Therefore, individual needs must be considered when determining the appropriate dose. It’s important for individuals to consult with a healthcare provider or registered dietician (RD) specializing in sports nutrition. In addition, there are so-called “responders” and “non-responders” to creatine supplementation. Not everyone will respond in the same way.
Are there any benefits of creatine monohydrate for cognitive performance? Can creatine help support brain health?
- There isn't enough scientific evidence to confirm that creatine monohydrate supplements improve cognitive performance in healthy adults. It’s possible that creatine supplementation might improve the cognitive performance of aged or stressed individuals, but there might not be a benefit for younger, unstressed individuals. More research is needed to understand any potential benefit of creatine for boosting cognitive performance and what amounts may be appropriate.
- Although there are some initial studies with rodents and among children with traumatic brain injury (TBI), it's unclear if creatine monohydrate might protect the brain or help individuals with complications due to brain injuries. Dietary supplements are not medicines and are not intended to treat, cure, or prevent any disease or medical condition. Therefore, research exploring the potential applications of creatine beyond its current use as a dietary supplement is needed.
What are the possible side effects of creatine?
- Some studies report minor adverse events such as gastrointestinal upset, bloating, muscle cramping, and headache. The most commonly reported side effect is weight gain.
- While there have been individual reports of kidney injury, dehydration, or heat illness, none of these have been confirmed through research. It’s possible that improper dosing (for example, taking too much) or contamination with other substances (such as drugs) could contribute to these adverse events. To reduce risk, look for products that have been third-party certified.
Bottom line
- Creatine monohydrate may benefit some athletes and Service Members by improving performance during short, high-intensity exercises. Potential benefits include increased power, speed, jump performance, strength, and muscle and lean body mass gains when combined with resistance training. Creatine may also help in reducing immediate muscle damage post-exercise. However, it is not effective during endurance training activities.
- More research is needed to understand whether creatine supplementation can help with cognitive performance and support brain health.
- Creatine monohydrate is not on the DoD Prohibited Dietary Supplement Ingredients List.
- It’s important to seek the guidance of a healthcare provider or performance dietitian before use. Not everyone will experience the same types of benefits or respond in the same way.
Additional resources
Updated 3 March 2025
